Military History

Nés de la croisade, voués à la défense de la Terre sainte ou à la Reconquête de la Péninsule ibérique, les ordres religieux militaires ont établi des réseaux d’établissements loin des lieux de combat contre les Infidèles, dans tout l’Occident médiéval, à partir du XIIe siècle. Ce volume est consacré à la riche histoire de ces ordres en Languedoc et en Provence, tout en proposant aussi quelques incursions du côté de l’Espagne. La part belle est faite aux deux plus importants d’entre eux, le Temple et l’Hôpital Saint-Jean de Jérusalem, pour lesquels les pays du Midi furent des régions d’implantation privilégiées, mais les chevaliers teutoniques ne sont pas oubliés. Nombreux sont les aspects de la vie des ordres ici abordés : la place des femmes en leur sein, leur rôle dans l’encadrement religieux des populations, leurs relations avec les comtes de Toulouse, leur contribution à l’émergence de l’art gothique… sans oublier les épisodes méridionaux du fameux procès contre les Templiers.

CОДЕРЖАНИЕ
От автора
Введение
1. Cовременные концепции и проблемы формирования нового мирового порядка
2. Предпосылки становления исламского фактора во внешней политике США
3. Концептуализация мусульманской общины США
4. Основные подходы Вашингтона к борьбе с религиозным экстремизмом в мусульманском мире
5. Конструирование мусульманской фрагментации на Ближнем и Среднем Востоке сквозь призму геостратегических проектов США
6. Дискуссии в американской внешней политике о реформировании ислама и демократизации стран мусульманского мира
Заключение
Литература

La obra abarca doscientos años (1605-1805) de la acción marítima de la Monarquía Hispánica por el mundo entero, en la que los buques armados de brazos (remos) fueron suplantados progresivamente por los navíos sin brazos (mancas) en todos los mares.

Battlewagons are one the most important land-based weapons after the invention of firearms. In Ming Dynasty, metal-made firearms were widely issued to the regular army. For the purposes of fire power support, anti-calvary, defend the passes and cities, transportation of heavy equipments, protection of loggers, and guarding the builders of the Great Walls, the Ming Army had built a great variety of specialized battlewagons. However, an error made during the writing of the Mingshi Bingzhi（the Treatises on military affairs in the History of the Ming dynasty, 明史兵志）, resulted in the comment that Ming's battlewagons were "useless and not used in battles.” As a result, future military historians failed to take this weapon into consideration.
This research starts with a literature review. We investigate the cause of errors with the official histories such as the Mingshi Bingzhi. We then reviewed the records regarding battlewagons and their sources. At the end, we used the Ming Shilu（Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty, 明實錄）as the starting point to reconstruct the historical evolution of Ming Dynasty's use of battlewagons. And selected materials from various sources, such as petitions, discussions, collected works, books on the art of war, Grand Secretariat Archives, local chronicles, unofficial histories, and some monographs on firearms history. We found that not only the Ming Empire used battlewagons; the Manchurians also used battlewagons frequently during Ming-Qing conflicts. Some defected Ming commanders were skillful in using battlewagons. In certain battles, the Manchurians even launched more battlewagons than the Ming Army ever did.
Ever since the 1980s, a new generation of military history scholars emerged. However, their discussions with Chinese firearms are generally not supported by Chinese historical sources. Many of them adopted the erroneous view by the Mingshi Bingzhi. This study shall provide certain insight into the use of battlewagons and firearm of Ming Dynasty.
　戰車是世界進入火器時代後，最重要的陸上兵器之一。中國作為發明火藥的帝國，在明代金屬火器全面配發至常備軍。明軍為了發揚火力、對抗騎兵、防守隘口、戒護城池、京師衛戍、運輸輜重、保衛樵採及構築邊牆者等需要，在北京和邊鎮發展並製造出種類繁多和數量龐大的戰車。然而，因《明史．兵志》修纂的誤失，以「無用未戰」來評價明代戰車。致使明代戰車的車制、營制、戰術、火器、戰略、戰績等諸問題，一直沒有受到軍事史家應有的重視。
　　本研究以文獻研究出發，先著手分析《明史．兵志》等清修官史錯誤史論之形成及其謬誤原因。其次，分析並釐清了明清史料中關於戰車的記載及其限制。最後，論文的主題以《明實錄》為底本，採取奏議、文集、兵書、檔案、方志和雜史等史料，及部分火器史研究成果，試圖重建明代二百餘年的戰車思想、車制、營制、戰術、戰略和效用等歷史活動。本研究中最重要的發現之一，是不僅明朝使用並依賴戰車，後金在遼東崛起的過程中，亦有部分漢人降將善於使用戰車，甚至在一些作戰中，後金所能動員的戰車數量還多於明軍。
　　自八○年代起，世界史展開了「新軍事史研究」的風潮，名家輩出，然而在發展世界火器文明理論時，往往缺乏中文史事之支持，甚至仍襲用《明史．兵志》「無用未戰」的觀點。因此，本研究當能在明代戰車和火器的使用上，提供相當充分的例證。