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This open access book presents a cross-disciplinary insight and policy analysis into the effects of European legal and political frameworks on the life of ‘Roma migrants’ in Europe. It outlines the creation and implementation of Roma... more
This open access book presents a cross-disciplinary insight and policy analysis into the effects of European legal and political frameworks on the life of ‘Roma migrants’ in Europe. It outlines the creation and implementation of Roma policies at the European level, provides a systematic understanding of identity-based exclusion and explores concrete case studies that reveal how integration and immigration policies work in practice. The book also shows how the Roma example might be employed in tackling the governance implications of our increasingly complex societies and assesses its potential and limitations for integration policies of vulnerable groups such as refugees and other discriminated minorities. As such the book will be of interest to academics, practitioners, policy-makers and a wider academic community working in migration, refugee, poverty and integration issues more broadly.
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The article investigates the youth transitions of a group of Romanian Roma adolescents with different im/mobility experiences but originating from the same transnational rural village. Their post-compulsory education orientations and... more
The article investigates the youth transitions of a group of Romanian Roma adolescents with different im/mobility experiences but originating from the same transnational rural village. Their post-compulsory education orientations and development of autonomous im/mobility projects are anything but homogeneous; nevertheless, they all develop halfway between the reproduction of socioeconomic inequalities and the challenge of social mobility. While in Spain young migrants are confronted with severe residential and school mobility but have access to wider vocational training opportunities, their peers in Romania rely on more consistent educational trajectories, but face the prospect of poorly valued work in the local rural economy. As for young returnees, they struggle to mobilize their richer transnational social and cultural capital as a way of overcoming the negative experience and result of (re)migration. Based on broader, longitudinal, multi-sited and collaborative ethnography, this paper aims to unveil the interplay between structural constraints and individual agency that shapes meaningful interaction between spatial, social and educational im/mobility in both transnational localities. While emphasizing the usefulness of the concept of transition to explain the processes of intergenerational transfer of poverty in contemporary Europe, we discuss how temporality, social capital and mobility engage with the specific socioeconomic context, transformations, and imagined futures of its young protagonists.
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The 2004 and 2007 EU Eastern enlargements facilitated the mobility of citizens from CEE countries, including European citizens of Roma ethnicity, which in turn contributed to the Europeanization of the 'Roma issue'. This article examines... more
The 2004 and 2007 EU Eastern enlargements facilitated the mobility of citizens from CEE countries, including European citizens of Roma ethnicity, which in turn contributed to the Europeanization of the 'Roma issue'. This article examines the politics of Roma ethnicity by giving a concise, yet we hope comprehensive, overview of how recent Roma migrations from EU Member States (particularly from Romania) to Spain can be understood and analysed in relation to both pre-existing policies for the Spanish Gitano communities and to wider European dynamics and structures.
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Les migrations roms à l’international ont fortement contribué au cours des dernières années à « l’européanisation » de la problématique. Ce furent largement les réponses politiques apportées localement et nationalement à... more
Les migrations roms à l’international ont fortement contribué au cours des dernières années à « l’européanisation » de la problématique. Ce furent largement les réponses politiques apportées localement et nationalement à l’arrivée de ressortissants étrangers (néanmoins européens) qui poussa l’Union et les pays membres à adopter un cadre pour « l’intégration des Roms ». Cependant la reconnaissance de ces populations comme minorité transnationale, ou encore la mise en place au niveau européen de politiques redistributives fondées sur la prise en compte d’une ethnicité « rom », se révèlent à la faveur d’un regard sur les pratiques, non- exemptes d’incohérences. L’article propose d’éclairer et d’analyser ces questions à partir de l’étude de la situation espagnole et plus particulièrement de la manière dont les migrants roms (majoritairement originaires de Roumanie) s’inscrivent dans des cadres antérieurs dessinés en faveur des Gitanos, en même temps qu’elles interpellent les structures et dynamiques européennes.
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Este artículo se centra en las pautas de acceso a la vivienda de familias rumanas romaníes en la ciudad de Granada entre 2001 y 2011, analizando la interacción entre estrategias y necesidades propias de las mismas y las modalidades de... more
Este artículo se centra en las pautas de acceso a la vivienda de familias rumanas romaníes en la ciudad de Granada entre 2001 y 2011, analizando la interacción entre estrategias y necesidades propias de las mismas y las modalidades de gestión de los recursos por parte de las autoridades públicas que, al menos idealmente, quieren garantizar el derecho a la vivienda. La conclusión principal es que los dispositivos de intervención adquieren mayor efectividad cuando actúan a partir de un conocimiento real de las características socioculturales de las personas atendidas y también cuando consideran sus pautas residenciales como expresiones de necesidades sociales.

This article focuses on the patterns of access to housing among Romanian Roma in the city of Granada between 2001 and 2011. It analyses how these patterns result from the interaction between the strategies and the needs of each family network, and the ways in which public authorities manage those benefits that, at least ideally, aim to ensure the right to housing. The main conclusion is that welfare and housing- related projects are more effective when they move from a deep knowledge of the socio-cultural characteristics of their beneficiaries, as well as when they consider their housing patterns as expressions of social needs.
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The chapter addresses the "substantial social participation" of marginalised young people "on the move". Based on three ethnographic studies, this contribution looks into the potentials and limitations for social participation triggered... more
The chapter addresses the "substantial social participation" of marginalised young people "on the move". Based on three ethnographic studies, this contribution looks into the potentials and limitations for social participation triggered by institutional agents. On the one hand, it illustrates how educational and socio-pedagogical settings enable adolescents to reposition themselves and build meaningful relationships within the broader society. On the other hand, the chapter shows how the the dynamics, processes, and relevant relational moments that shape the lives of young people "on the move" can be only capture if also the spatial dimension of personal life is considered.
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Roma international mobility has strongly contributed to the Europeanization of the ‘Roma issue’. It was largely the political response of local and national governments to the arrival of ‘foreign (albeit European) Roma’ in their... more
Roma international mobility has strongly contributed to the Europeanization of the ‘Roma issue’. It was largely the political response of local and national governments to the arrival of ‘foreign (albeit European) Roma’ in their territories that convinced EU institutions to adopt a common framework for ‘Roma inclusion’. However, the formal recognition of ‘Roma people’ as a transnational minority, as well the adoption of 'Roma ethnicity' as an organizing principle for the redistributive policies pursued by the European Union, is anything but free of incoherencies. Such mobility reawakens and shifts the policy debate on the relation between socio-economic redistribution and identity recognition from a multi-national to a local context. This dilemma is mostly reflected in the question of weather, why, and how the welfare-based public action towards ‘ethnic migrants’ falls into the previous work with ‘ethnic nationals’, or, conversely, whether it has to do with policies addressing other immigrants. Is the social and economic disadvantage in which many Roma find themselves similar amongst ‘old’ and ‘new’ Roma communities in Western Europe, or not? What are the criteria for the comparisons we have to make, and should we deal with Roma migration on its own, or should we understand it in terms of wider structures? Furthermore, the coexistence of both ‘national’ and ‘immigrant’ Roma on a same territory, as well as under the same policy framework is challenging the making of a pan-European Roma identity. Besides the solidarity vs. competition characterization of the relation between these two groups, the main question here has to do with the repercussions that stereotyped and racialized perceptions of the former have on the development of policies for the latter. This ‘shift of stereotypes’ may charge ‘Roma migrants’ with the same collective inter-generational discrimination of their (at least officially) namesakes.
Authors: Bálint-Ábel Bereményi (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, EMIGRA Research Group); Alba Castellsagué (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona); Stefano Piemontese (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, EMIGRA Research Group; Central... more
Authors:

Bálint-Ábel Bereményi (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, EMIGRA Research Group);
Alba Castellsagué (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona);
Stefano Piemontese  (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, EMIGRA Research Group; Central European University, Center for Policy Studies).


Historically and currently, nomadism has had a wide range of connotations from the methaphorization of the postmodern condition (Kabachnik, 2010; Smith & Katz, 1993) to the stigmatization as a threat to a society based on a sedentary ideology (Kabachnik, 2010; MacLaughlin, 1999b; McVeigh, 1997; Richardson, 2006). This paper aims to contextualize and highlight the mechanisms of attribution -trapped within the nomad-sedentary dichotomy (Deleuze & Guattari, 1986; MacLaughlin, 1999a) - of the nomadism to Roma, as an ethnic or racial feature in order to explain migration processes, "instead of exploring the real reasons of economic and political pushes and pulls" (Acton, 2010).

Drawing on previous fieldworks, an extended review of the Spanish press and critical discourse analysis of recent policy texts, we aim to unveil the "political technology" forces that perpetuate the automatic association of Roma with nomadic ways of life, both in popular discourses and the official and institutional rhetoric. We argue that nomadism has not only been ethnicized, and hence reduced to one particular undesirable "mobility regime" (Glick Schiller & Salazar, 2013) with respect to the representations of the sedentary population, but it also has been assumed as an identity feature by the Roma populations (Acton 2010) through different mechanisms of "techniques of the self" (Miller and Rose 1990), as an instrument of contemporary "governmentality" (Shore & Wright, 1997) in Europe.
Spain had become the model for the European Commission and other EU countries for integrating ‘Roma’. Different Autonomous Communities in Spain have been implementing comprehensive ‘Gitano plans’ for several years, assigning generous... more
Spain had become the model for the European Commission and other EU countries for integrating ‘Roma’. Different Autonomous Communities in Spain have been implementing comprehensive ‘Gitano plans’ for several years, assigning generous funds and opting for an interdepartmental approach to the planning and implementation of focused actions. In many aspects they anticipated the features of the recently approved European Strategy on Roma Inclusion – such as the support to targeted initiatives, the emphasis on participation, and the comprehensive approach. However, the real impact of these policies in the target population has remained very limited. The lack of result-based mechanisms of evaluation and monitoring, questions not only the efficiency of the invested funds but also the model itself.

During the last decade, Spain progressively became the main country of destination for
Romanian Roma migrations. Although in Spain the ‘Roma issue’ never reached the shape of a‘national problem’, local stakeholders and policy makers started to develop policy initiatives aimed to give a response to the freedom of movement of mostly socio-economically marginalized Roma immigrants. Based on the official recognition of the ‘Roma people’ as a pan-European quasi-national group, Roma from other EU Member States have been progressively included as a target group of the broader pre-existing Gitano policies. According to the motto “France deports Roma, Spain integrates them”, and disregarding for the difference of status characterizing ‘old’ and ‘new’ Roma, Spain has been praised for the outstanding and exemplary treatment of the ‘Roma population’. The incorporation of the Roma from other EU member states as a target group of the Gitano policies could either confirm a supposed talent of Spanish governments in the policy management of issues related to ‘ethnic stratification’, or reveal that the solution of social inequalities has to be assumed by broader redistributive policy measures.

In the past two years several evaluation reports have been published by relevant civil society stakeholders together with social scientists from a critical point of view, that apparently could not find their way into the political decision making processes. Despite the production of empirical evidences, real discussion between research/evaluators and policy-maker – not to mention the main technical staff responsible for the execution of these policies – is still missing. In order to bridge this missing gap, we organize the workshop for scholars, policy makers and NGOs.
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Según el informe de la Fundamental Rights Agency (2009) sobre la “Situación de los ciudadanos comunitarios de etnia romaní que residen en otros Estados miembros. Selección de iniciativas positivas”, el Plan Integral del Pueblo Gitano a... more
Según el informe de la Fundamental Rights Agency (2009) sobre la “Situación de los ciudadanos comunitarios de etnia romaní que residen en otros Estados miembros. Selección de iniciativas positivas”, el Plan Integral del Pueblo Gitano a Cataluña representa un modelo de buena práctica “en cuanto a la planificación estratégica de una administración regional para la integración de la población gitana … ya que considera expresamente a los ciudadanos comunitarios de etnía romaní procedentes de otros Estados miembros, lo que de por sí constituye una buena práctica sin precedentes”.

Un estudio específico realizado en el marco de la "Evaluación de los seis años del Plan Integral del Pueblo Gitano a Cataluña" (Beremenyi & Mirga, 2012) claramente contradice las declaraciones y las expectativas de la Fundamental Rights Agency, tanto en relación a la la incorporación de los 'inmigrantes romaníes' desde un punto de vista transversal (como beneficiarios implícitos de todas las actuaciones del Plan), como desde la implementación de actuaciones específicas, explícitamente dirigidas a esta población.

En la práctica, la incorporación de los así llamados 'gitanos del Este' en el Plan Integral del Pueblo Gitano en Cataluña presenta unos elementos, que ponen en duda tanto el impacto real de políticas específicas para gitanos/romá, como la viabilidad a nivel local del reconocimiento de los gitanos/roma como pueblo transnacional.

1. La interpretación de los gitanos como pueblo transnacional, y la atención que dedica el Plan Integral a los 'gitanos del Este', camufla el miedo ante la 'invasión de los romá' dentro de una política inclusiva de acción positiva . 
2. El Plan Integral no propone nuevas actuaciones, ni genera nuevos recursos financieros, sino recoge en todas las políticas existentes en Catalunya explícitamente dirigidas a 'inmigrantes romaníes', y que ya se estaban realizando y financiando desde cada Departamento.
3. Los representantes de las asociaciones gitanas que participan en los órganos creados por el plan no reconocen los 'otros gitanos' como beneficiarios de 'su Plan'."
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La presente contribución se centra en torno a las pautas de acceso a la vivienda entre familias rumanas romaníes en la ciudad de Granada, analizando cómo estas proceden de la interacción entre estrategias y necesidades propias de las... more
La presente contribución se centra en torno a las pautas de acceso a la vivienda entre familias rumanas romaníes en la ciudad de Granada, analizando cómo estas proceden de la interacción entre estrategias y necesidades propias de las redes de familias inmigrantes y las modalidades con las que las autoridades públicas gestionan recursos que, por lo menos idealmente, quieren garantizar el derecho a una vivienda digna.

Entre 2000 y 2008 las actuaciones municipales frente a la ocupación por parte de familias romaníes de viviendas y cortijos semis-abandonados fue esporádica y puntual. Sucesivamente los servicios sociales empezaron una política de re-alojamiento basada en la provisión de prestaciones sociales otorgadas para garantizar el acceso y la permanencia en pisos de las familias desahuciadas de las viviendas ocupadas. Sin embargo, tales medidas aseguraron solo en parte condiciones residenciales ‘dignas y adecuadas’ (según los propios criterios de planificación de los servicios sociales) mientras seguían alimentando o reproduciendo la movilidad residencial y las condiciones de hacinamiento. Éstas dependieron, además, de factores y dinámicas propias de la organización social de la inmigración romaní, relativos sobre todo a su perfil demográfico, a una estructura basada en amplias redes de parientes, a un heterogeneidad interna tanto de condiciones socioeconómicas como de objetivos migratorios.

Los datos que se presentan proceden de dos investigaciones independientes desarrolladas en la ciudad Granada entre 2003 y 2011, que han combinado observación participante, entrevistas a técnicos de los servicios públicos e informantes romaníes (Roma Korturare procedentes de Transilvania) y con la explotación de literatura gris.
Authors: Bálint-Ábel Bereményi (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, EMIGRA Research Group) Stefano Piemontese (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona) Anna Mirga (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona) This paper aims to reflect critically... more
Authors:

Bálint-Ábel Bereményi (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, EMIGRA Research Group)
Stefano Piemontese (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona)
Anna Mirga (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona)

This paper aims to reflect critically on the widely celebrated Spanish Model of Roma Integration (NY Times 06/12/2010). Different Autonomous Communities in Spain have been implementing comprehensive Roma Plans for several years, assigning generous funds and opting for an interdepartmental approach to planning and implementation of focused actions. However, the real impact of these policies in the target population has remained very limited. The lack of result-based approach and mechanisms of evaluation
and monitoring questions not only the efficiency of the invested funds but also the model itself. Additionally, these public policies establish consultative bodies which enable direct participation to chosen representatives of local Roma communities.

Although the principle of Roma participation in policies is very positive, as it responds to EU requirements, the results also bring about ambiguous consequences as to the legitimacy and representativeness of these Roma agents, as well as their independency as agents representing Roma interests. Even though, there is no yardstick to measure legitimacy, following McGarry (2010:105) “by assessing the actions (…) relative legitimacy can be deduced”. Thus, based on these preoccupations, this paper will give a comparative insight into Roma Plans of Catalonia and Andaluzia, projecting some alarming common points onto the recently published National Strategy for Roma Inclusion. NSRI of Spain seems to share numerous points with those regional plans, which may be detrimental to its feasibility and efficacy.

Our analysis draws on preliminary results of an evaluation project (2011-12), carried out by a consortium composed by Catalonia’s only Roma Federation and a university based research group and financed by the Open Society Foundations. It applies mainly qualitative methods to data collection, such as semi-directed interviews, direct observations and focus groups. Although its main object of analysis was the planning, implementation and impact of the Comprehensive Plan for the Roma People in Catalonia, it also approached other regional Roma Plans of Spain.
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Project JUST/2011/FRAC/AG/2716 - "WE: WOR(L)DS WHICH EXCLUDE. The focus of the report is on the institutions and the main action is to analyse the documents produced by national and local public institutions (laws, regulations, plans,... more
Project JUST/2011/FRAC/AG/2716 - "WE: WOR(L)DS WHICH EXCLUDE.

The focus of the report is on the institutions and the main action is to analyse the documents produced by national and local public institutions (laws, regulations, plans, acts, resolutions) concerning Gitanos, both as regards the language used and the measures proposed, housing policies in particular. On the issue of housing the policies of social inclusion play a certain role. Stereotypes can be used for trade or in situations of conflict in which questions of identity are played out. The analysis of language and institutional measures include the study of the reasons and sources of the language utilized, of the measures proposed and of the actions and it could clearly show what the stereotypes in action are, and how they produce effects on reality and on the everyday life of Gitano people.
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This report offers a synthetic description of the political-ideological contexts vis-à-vis Roma migration in both countries of origin (Bulgaria and Romania) and destination (Italy, Spain and Austria), as well as a critical analysis of the... more
This report offers a synthetic description of the political-ideological contexts vis-à-vis Roma migration in both countries of origin (Bulgaria and Romania) and destination (Italy, Spain and Austria), as well as a critical analysis of the policies targeted to this population in the countries of the consortium.

Each national chapter is divided in almost two sections. The first one aims at introducing the reader to the issue of Roma migration, also offering data and references to the most important national literature on this topic. The second section focusses on the National Roma Integration Strategies and, when applicable, also on the diverse incorporation of Roma migrants in these legislative frameworks.

In the chapter on Romania, the description of the political and ideological context is accompanied by an analysis of the representation of the Roma in the Romanian media, which seem to shape the relationship with the European Union. The Spanish chapter includes some results of an inedited study on the ‘Roma migrants’  in the Comprehensive Plan for Roma People in Catalonia, realized in collaboration with the EMIGRA Research Group, one of the REdHNET associate partners.
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This report represents the first product of the REdHNET project // Romani People, Educational and Housing Policies: Key Links to Share. It provides a bibliographic review (to be gradually improved through the duration of the project)... more
This report represents the first product of the REdHNET project // Romani People, Educational and Housing Policies: Key Links to Share.

It provides a bibliographic review (to be gradually improved through the duration of the project) of the theoretical and policy framework surrounding the issues tackled by the REdHNET project. The report approaches in a very schematic and simplified way, discourses, findings, and policies, which are relevant for the design of housing and educational interventions aimed to Roma migrants. For this reason, it may represent an useful reference tool for policy makers and for people working in the field of education and housing.  The report is also an essential toolkit for the design of the next REdHNET research tools, as well for the joint reflection and debates to be held during the next transnational meetings.

A first section is introductory to the topics tackled by the REdHNET project. The description of Roma migration in Europe (chapter 1) is followed by a review of the educational and housing situations of Roma migrants from Romania and Bulgaria in both countries of origin and destination (chapter 2). Then, the backbone of the project is approached trough a bibliographic review of the existent literature focusing on the link between education, housing conditions and mobility (chapter 3). Finally, the report offers some insights into the researches approaching the mutual relations between school systems and Roma or immigrant students (chapter 4).

The second part of this report is rooted on the objective of the REdHNET project to define the criteria or elements characterizing the most successful policies and practices of coordination in the field of housing and education. In the first place, the concept of  ‘good practice’ – with which we will deal during the whole duration of the project – will be critically presented (chapter 5). Then, the ‘should-be’ best policies and best practices criteria in the three domains addressed by the project (romani policies, education, and housing) will be presented according to the definition given by international and European policy-makers, and human rights monitoring mechanisms (chapters 6 to 8).
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Coordinators / Authors: Dr. Bálint-Ábel Bereményi (UAB) and Anna Mirga (FAGIC). Report elaborated by the Federation of Roma Associations in Catalonia (FAGIC) and the EMIGRA Group (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona).
The study intends to offer an evaluation of the implementation of the social housing and social services schemes in the case of the Romanian Roma community settled in the suburbs of Granada. Both the family housing strategies (like... more
The study intends to offer an evaluation of the implementation of the social housing and social services schemes in the case of the Romanian Roma community settled in the suburbs of Granada. Both the family housing strategies (like residential mobility and overcrowding) and the public initiatives aimed at ensuring the access to a decent and adequate housing (based essentially on unsustainable social services' benefits-based housing practices) are analysed. Methodologically, the study is based on a qualitative field investigation and is supported by an exhaustive legislative and newspaper-based bibliographic research. It pretends to be a useful instrument for the comparison, at a EU and local level, of diverse policy approaches to housing with respect to the Eastern EU Roma communities settled in Western EU countries.
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Gli ultimi anni hanno visto il moltiplicarsi di diverse forme di resistenza nei territori e nelle città. Sono le Realtà [R]esistenti, esperimenti di democrazia radicale e radicata, che contestano la gestione regolare dello spazio,... more
Gli ultimi anni hanno visto il moltiplicarsi di diverse forme di resistenza nei territori e nelle città. Sono le Realtà [R]esistenti, esperimenti di democrazia radicale e radicata, che contestano la gestione regolare dello spazio, rivendicandone la difesa e/o un uso diverso. Di fronte al rafforzamento di discorsi e pratiche locali repressive, WOTS Magazine (http://wots.eu/) ha deciso di costruire una contro-cartografia delle "esperienze ribelli" italiane, con l'obiettivo di restituire la ricchezza delle proposte politiche e sociali che esse esprimono, ma anche di consolidare una rete di iniziative che è certamente vivace, ma talvolta frammentata. C'è tempo fino al 15 giugno 2017 per inviare a rresistenti@outlook.it proposte, contributi, critiche, suggerimenti e commenti!

Leggi su: http://wots.eu/2016/12/12/realta-resistenti/.
Evento/forum: https://www.facebook.com/events/219111231871706/.
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Conference "International Migration Integration and Social Justice in Europe"
Final INTEGRIM-SCRIBANI conference, taking place in Bilbao, July 6-7-8, 2016
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The INTEGRIM network is organising 4 scientific workshops at Liège, Lisbon, Deusto and Sussex between May-June 2015. Please take a look at the workshop titles and consider submitting an abstract: 11th May 2015 - CEDEM, University of... more
The INTEGRIM network is organising 4 scientific workshops at Liège, Lisbon, Deusto and Sussex between May-June 2015. Please take a look at the workshop titles and consider submitting an abstract:

11th May 2015 - CEDEM, University of Liège, Belgium
Religion and the political participation and mobilization of immigrant groups. A transatlantic perspective

28th and 29th May 2015 - CEG & IGOT, University of Lisbon
Social integration policies and equitable cities

8th June 2015 - University of Deusto, Bilbao
From race to culture: Ongoing developments in ethnic studies and its repercussions on belonging and identity politics

18th June 2015 - University of Sussex, Brighton
Migrant labour market integration

Further details: http://www.integrim.eu/integrim-scientific-thematic-workshops-2/
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The symposium will be divided into two interrelated panels:  (1) The rule of law and the role of law. The practical and conceptual challenges of the policies for Roma raised by the phenomenon of Roma westward migration: between... more
The symposium will be divided into two interrelated panels: 

(1) The rule of law and the role of law. The practical and conceptual challenges of the policies for Roma raised by the phenomenon of Roma westward migration: between political local context and legal European dimension.

(2) Roma westward migration 'from the inside'. Addressing the ethno-anthropological research gap through the theories of migration. 

The first one aims at promoting a critical reflection and debate around the political and legal context of Romani migration within the EU, both in terms of inclusive and restrictive policies. The second panel aims at bringing together papers stemming from anthropological studies centered in the internal dynamics of Roma migrant communities, also in comparison with non-Roma groups.
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